The Doctrine of Prophethood in Islam

I. The Necessity of Divine Guidance (Nubuwwah)

The concept of prophethood (Nubuwwah) is foundational to Islam, providing the indispensable link between the Creator (Allah) and humankind. Islam asserts that Allah created humanity to worship Him and to lead a life structured by His divine guidance. The central question addressed by Nubuwwah is how man can know and fulfill the purpose of his existence without clear, practical instructions from his Creator.

The answers to the most profound existential questions—Why were we created? What happens after death? Are we accountable for our actions?—cannot be reliably derived through human intellect alone. Furthermore, while modern science offers impressive advancements, its inherent materialistic and empirical limitations preclude it from providing authentic guidance about the supernatural world or absolute morality. Similarly, relying on subjective mystic experience is unsuitable for universal legislation due to its often misleading and highly individualized nature. Therefore, prophethood, through which Allah sent a messenger (Rasūl) to every nation to reveal His message, is the only authoritative and effective means of guidance.

II. The Divine Selection and Characteristics of Prophets

Prophethood is not an office achieved through human striving; it is a blessing and a favor bestowed exclusively by Allah upon an individual He chooses to convey His message. The functional requirements of this role demand that the selected individuals possess exceptional qualities ensuring the integrity of the divine law (Sharī’ah).

A. Integrity and Excellence

Prophets are mandated to be the most intellectually capable and morally upright individuals in their communities. They embody truthfulness, honesty, and trustworthiness, demonstrating the highest level of moral character. This unparalleled personality and conduct serve as the required model (Uswah Ḥasanah) for their followers, inspiring them to accept the message and transform their lives.   

B. The Doctrine of Infallibility (‘Iṣmah)

A cornerstone of Islamic belief is the functional infallibility (‘Iṣmah) of the prophets, which is divine protection safeguarding them from error in doctrine and major sin.

1. Infallibility in Revelation: Prophets are absolutely infallible in the communication and transmission of the revelation (Wahy). They do not conceal any part of the message and never add personal opinions to the core divine law. The Qur’an mandates absolute obedience to the Messenger, and such obedience is only possible if the Messenger is fully protected from error in the message, thus guaranteeing that following the Prophet is equivalent to obeying Allah.   
2. Protection from Sin: The majority of Muslim scholars agree that prophets are protected from committing major sins (Kabā’ir). While they may commit unintentional mistakes or minor errors (Ṣaghā’ir) unrelated to the core message or law, they never persist in error. Any such slip is immediately followed by sincere and prompt repentance (Tawbah), after which they often attain an even more perfect state.   

Based on this doctrine, Muslims categorically reject narratives found in other scriptures that ascribe moral failures—such as fornication (e.g., Prophet Lot) or adultery and murder (e.g., Prophet David)—to the messengers of Allah. It is deemed inconceivable that an individual chosen by Allah as the ultimate moral exemplar could commit acts classified as major sins.   

III. Authentication by Miracles (Mu‘jizāt)

To authenticate their claim and prove they are not impostors, prophets are supported by miracles (Mu‘jizāt). These acts are performed solely by the power and permission of Allah, not by the prophet’s independent capability.

These miracles were often strategically deployed to challenge the greatest expertise of the specific civilization to which the prophet was sent:

• Moses (Mūsā) confronted the magicians excelling in sorcery; his miracle defeated the best magic society could offer.
• Jesus (‘Īsā) confronted physicians skilled in medicine; his miracles included raising the dead and curing incurable diseases, surpassing all human medical capability.
• Muhammad (Muḥammad) confronted the Arabs known for their eloquence and magnificent poetry; his central and enduring miracle was the Qur'an itself, a linguistic, intellectual, and spiritual challenge that no poet or orator could ever imitate or surpass.   

Crucially, while previous miracles were localized and time-bound, the Qur'an is universal and everlasting. Its miraculous nature (I‘jāz) is perpetually witnessed by every generation in terms of its style, content, and spiritual message, proving its enduring divine origin and ensuring the necessary authentication for the final message.

IV. The Unity and Content of Divine Revelation

All prophets share the same core purpose: to lead humanity to Allah. Consequently, the divine revelation they brought is singular in essence and purpose, confirming prior revelations and preparing for subsequent ones.

The divine message consistently imparts essential knowledge, including:

• Monotheism (Tawḥīd): A clear concept of God, His attributes, and creation.
• The Unseen (Ghayb): Knowledge about the metaphysical realm, including angels, jinn (spirits), Paradise, and Hell.
• Accountability: The purpose of creation, divine expectations, and the reality of reward or punishment.
• Societal Law: Clear guidance on structuring society according to His will, implementing a law that aims for a happy and ideal society.

A. Belief in All Messengers

Muslims are unique in holding that belief in all messengers of Allah, without making any distinction between them, is an article of faith. As the Qur'an mandates: "Say (O Muslims), we believe in Allah and that which is revealed to us and that which was revealed...source between any of them and unto Him we have surrendered". This comprehensive acceptance stands in contrast to other faiths, such as Judaism which rejects Jesus and Muhammad, or Christianity which rejects Muhammad and often functionally disregards the laws brought by Moses.   

B. Caution Regarding Previous Scriptures

While affirming the divine origin of earlier scriptures (Torah, Gospel), Islam instructs caution, as the revelation conveyed by those prophets has undergone distortion and corruption (Tahrīf) by those who received it. This distortion often involves obscuring or changing the interpretation of the original meaning (Tahrif al-ma'nā).   

V. Jesus (‘Īsā) and the Final Messenger (Aḥmad)

Islam holds Prophet Jesus (‘Īsā ibn Maryam) in high esteem, recognizing him as a mighty prophet sent specifically to the Children of Israel.

A. The Refutation of Divinity

The Qur'an absolutely rejects the assertion of Jesus' divinity and his status as the "Son of God". His miraculous birth without a father does not confer divinity, a point definitively established through the analogy of Prophet Adam: "Truly the likeness of Jesus, in God's sight, is as Adam's likeness; He created him of dust, then said unto him, 'Be,' and he was" [Āl-‘Imrān 3:59]. This analogy demonstrates that Adam, created without a mother or a father, represents a greater miracle, confirming that all creation is subject to Allah's command (Kun! – "Be!").   

Jesus clarified that his miracles were performed by God, not by him, but his message was later distorted. His mission included confirming the Torah and bringing good tidings of the final messenger to come after him: "And when Jesus son of Mary said, Children of Israel, I am indeed the Messenger to you, confirming the Torah that is before me, and giving good tidings of a Messenger who shall come after me, whose name shall be the praised one (Aḥmad)" [aṣ-Ṣaff 61:6].   

The Qur'an also affirms that Jesus was not killed or crucified by his enemies, but rather that Allah raised him alive to heaven, a belief supported by authentic sayings of Prophet Muhammad.   

VI. The Finality of Prophethood (Khatam an-Nabiyyīn)

Prophet Muhammad, known for his trustworthiness (al-Amīn) before receiving revelation, is the Seal of the Prophets (Khatam an-Nabiyyīn). This title, established in the Qur'an (33:40), signifies that he is the final messenger sent by God, and that the teachings of Islam are valid and complete for all time. Any subsequent claim to prophethood is universally rejected by Muslims as a delusion.   

The success of this finality is secured by Allah’s promise to preserve the Qur'an. The revelation was meticulously recorded during the Prophet's lifetime, ensuring that it reached future generations in an uncorrupted form and serving as the authoritative, perpetual source of divine guidance for all humankind.