Sanctity of Life in World Religions: Law & Ethics
The right to life is universally recognised as the most fundamental of all human rights; indeed, it is the raison d'être and inner essence of all legal protections designed to safeguard the individual against physical and psychological violation. This profound legal priority converges with the theological anthropology of the world's major religions—including Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism—which elevate human dignity to an extraordinary moral status. Whether understood as vicegerents of Allah fashioned in the "best of stature," bearers of the divine image (Imago Dei), or sacred manifestations of cosmic unity (Ahimsa), every human life possesses intrinsic, non-instrumental worth that must never be subordinated to utilitarian expediency. This comprehensive treatise investigates the sanctity of life across divine and eastern traditions, exploring foundational scriptures and jurisprudential frameworks. We examine bioethical frontiers such as suicide, abortion, and euthanasia, alongside the devastating societal impacts of murder and war crimes. Finally, we analyse the critical role of interfaith peacemaking and psychological pastoral care in protecting vulnerable minorities and confronting violent religious extremism.
- ► 1. Introduction: The Universal Mandate of Human Dignity
- ► 2. The Meaning of "Sanctity of Life": Bioethical Foundations
- ► 3. The Islamic Perspective: Divine Gift, Inviolability & Al-Hayy
- ► 4. Comparative Traditions: Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism & Buddhism
- ► 5. Bioethical Frontiers: Suicide, Abortion & Euthanasia Across Faiths
- ► 6. Societal Devastation: The Anatomy of Murder and War Crimes
- ► 7. Protecting Vulnerable Minorities & Civilians During Armed Conflicts
- ► 8. Confronting Extremism: Psychological Care & Interfaith Peacemaking
- ► 9. Comparative Summary: Sanctity of Life Across Traditions
- ► 10. References & Classical Bibliography
1. Introduction: The Universal Mandate of Human Dignity
The right to life is not merely one clause among many in international legal conventions; it is the absolute bedrock upon which civilization and moral order are constructed. Without the guaranteed preservation of life, every other human freedom—whether speech, movement, assembly, or worship—becomes entirely meaningless. The fundamental objective of human rights is to protect the personal integrity of the individual against arbitrary violence, physical torture, and mental degradation.
Let's be honest: while modern secular humanism often frames human rights in contractual or legalistic terms, the deepest, most enduring roots of human dignity are anchored in religious anthropology. Across the Abrahamic traditions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) as well as ancient Vedic and Dharmic paths (Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism), human existence is viewed not as a random biological accident, but as a sacred endowment bestowed by a higher divine authority. Because human life belongs to the Creator, every individual carries an inviolable dignity that commands universal respect.
Notice the extraordinary divine declaration: if Allah is the "Best of Creators," then the human being fashioned by His wisdom must represent the most magnificent and precious of all created entities—at least potentially when aligned with moral truth. This introductory foundational understanding explains why true religious believers are profoundly sensitive to any violation of human dignity. While individual members or political factions within religious communities may tragically fail to uphold this standard in practice, the genuine teachings of world faiths remain unambiguous: human life is sacred, irreversible, and worthy of absolute preservation.
2. The Meaning of "Sanctity of Life": Bioethical Foundations
What do we precisely mean when we invoke the "sanctity of life"? While ethicists, jurists, and theologians offer varying formulations, traditional and modern frameworks converge on a singular truth: life possesses ultimate importance, inviolability, and intrinsic moral worth. To intentionally extinguish an innocent human life attacks the core of the moral universe and represents a grave injustice.
Let's examine how contemporary bioethical scholars articulate this doctrine:
Prominent bioethicists such as Helga Kuhse and John Keown note that the sanctity-of-life ethic views all human life as possessing intrinsic, infinite worth regardless of its current biological type or "quality." A person's right to live is never contingent upon their economic productivity, social utility, or physical perfection. Because every human life is an end in itself, it is always morally wrong to intentionally kill an innocent human being.
Moral theologian David Gushee provides a benchmark definition: the sanctity of life is the conviction that all human beings—at every stage of development, in any state of consciousness, of every race, colour, gender, language, class, or physical ability—are to be perceived as persons of equal, immeasurable worth and inviolable dignity, and must be treated with a respect commensurate with this elevated moral status.
Across comparative philosophy, the doctrine of the sanctity of life encompasses four foundational theses that govern medical, legal, and social ethics:
- Divine Stewardship: Life is a direct gift from God; human beings are custodians and caretakers of their bodies, not absolute owners with the license to destroy themselves.
- Universal Equality: Every human being possesses equal moral standing before the Creator, irrespective of age, sex, ethnic background, religious creed, or physical/mental disability.
- Strict Prohibition of Unlawful Killing: The deliberate termination of human life is strictly forbidden, with narrow, heavily regulated exceptions allowed only for legitimate self-defence or judicial protection of innocent lives against imminent lethal violence.
- Life as a Basic Good: Human life is a foundational good in and of itself (Bonum honestum), rather than a mere instrumental tool (Bonum utile) to achieve political, economic, or scientific goals.
3. The Islamic Perspective: Divine Gift, Inviolability & Al-Hayy
In Islamic theology and bioethics, life is revered as one of the most sublime blessings of Allah. Among the divine attributes and names revealed in the Holy Qur'an, Al-Hayy (The Ever-Living, the Source of all Life) stands as one of the most majestic and oft-repeated. Because life emanates directly from Al-Hayy, every breathing moment is imbued with cosmic significance and must be protected with utmost vigilance.
The master guiding principle of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) regarding human preservation is immortalised in Surah Al-Ma'idah, establishing an equation that elevates the individual soul to the weight of entire humanity:
Let's reflect on the gravity of this divine equation: taking a single innocent life is judged as a crime against the collective human race, while rescuing or preserving a single life earns the spiritual merit of saving all of humanity. This is further reinforced by Allah's declaration of universal human dignity in Surah Al-Isra (17:70): "And We have certainly honoured the children of Adam (Wa laqad karramna bani adama); provided them with transport on land and sea; given them for sustenance things good and pure; and conferred on them special favours above a great part of Our creation."
The Divine Prerogative Over Life and Death
Islamic scripture explicitly establishes that the initiation and termination of life belongs exclusively to Allah's sovereign decree. No human being possesses the authority to usurp this divine prerogative:
- Surah Ali 'Imran (3:185): "Every soul shall taste death, and you will only be given your [full] compensation on the Day of Resurrection..." and (3:145) "And it is not [possible] for one to die except by permission of Allah at a decree determined."
- Surah An-Nahl (16:61): "...And when their term has come, they will not remain behind an hour, nor will they precede it."
- Surah Az-Zumar (39:42): "Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes] during their sleep. Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term..."
- Surah Al-Isra (17:33): "And do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden [to be killed], except by right of justice..."
Prophetic Warnings Against Murder and Suicide
In the authentic Hadith traditions of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the inviolability of life is defended with uncompromising clarity. The severity of taking one's own life (suicide) or the life of another is illustrated across multiple narrations:
Narrated by Thabit bin Ad-Dahhak: The Prophet ﷺ said, "Whoever commits suicide with a piece of iron will be punished with the same piece of iron in the Hellfire." Narrated Jundub: The Prophet ﷺ said, "A man was inflicted with wounds, and he committed suicide, and so Allah said: 'My slave has caused death on himself hurriedly, so I forbid Paradise for him'" (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 23, No. 445).
Narrated by Abu Hurairah: The Prophet ﷺ said, "He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hellfire forever, and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself shall keep on stabbing himself in the Hellfire forever" (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 23, No. 446). These warnings emphasize that life is a sacred trust (Amanah) that cannot be discarded in moments of despair.
4. Comparative Traditions: Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism & Buddhism
When we broaden our horizon beyond Islam to examine the global family of divine and eastern religions, we discover a striking, harmonious consensus: the sanctity of human life is the universal cornerstone of ethical civilization.
Judaism and the Master Mandate of Pikuach Nefesh
In Jewish law and tradition, human life is regarded as sacred property belonging to God. Because all human beings are fashioned in the divine image, every individual life possesses infinite worth. The supreme importance of preserving life is demonstrated by the Talmudic principle of Pikuach Nefesh (the saving of a human life). Under Jewish law (Halakhah), virtually every religious commandment—including the strict observance of the Sabbath—must be suspended immediately if a human life is in peril. Whether rescuing a child trapped under rubble or extinguishing a fire to save a family on Saturday, preserving breath takes absolute precedence over ritual observance.
Christianity and the Doctrine of Imago Dei
Christian ethics is built directly upon the Old Testament creation narrative, which establishes that human beings are made in the express image and likeness of God (Imago Dei). Because humanity reflects God's image, every person possesses inestimable, non-instrumental value regardless of health, economic utility, or social dependency. The New Testament expands this sanctity through the teachings of Jesus Christ, who fiercely defended the oppressed, the poor, widows, and orphans. The Apostle Paul proclaimed universal human equality before God: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28).
Hinduism, Vedic Cosmology, and Ahimsa
In Hindu philosophy, all living beings are sacred manifestations of the divine spirit and must be treated with deep reverence and compassion. This cosmological unity is foundational to the practice of Ahimsa (non-injury / non-violence), leading millions of Hindus to embrace vegetarianism and moral self-restraint. The ancient Vedic scriptures declare that absolute sovereignty over life belongs solely to God; humanity cannot act as tyrannical masters over the planet nor assign arbitrary degrees of worth to living creatures:
Yajurveda (2.8): "The loving sage beholds that Being, hidden in mystery, wherein the universe comes to have one home... The Omnipresent One pervades souls and matter like warp and weft in created beings."
Atharvaveda (12.1-15): "Born of Thee, on Thee move mortal creatures; Thou barest them—the biped and the quadruped; Thine, O earth, are the five races of men, for whom Surya (Sun), as he rises, spreads with his rays the light that is immortal."
Buddhism, Jainism, and the First Commandment
In both Buddhism and Jainism—Eastern traditions that arose as moral reform movements emphasizing deep inner discipline—the foremost, non-negotiable commandment is: "Do not destroy life." In Jainism, the doctrine of Ahimsa is taken to its most rigorous, absolute limit, strictly forbidding the injury or killing of any living organism, requiring adherents to conquer their own passions, lust, and wrath (Jain meaning "conqueror of self"). Across all these major pathways, the preservation of life is celebrated as the highest moral duty.
5. Bioethical Frontiers: Suicide, Abortion & Euthanasia Across Faiths
While world religions unite in proclaiming the sacredness of life, practical bioethical dilemmas—such as the limits of medical intervention at the beginning and end of life—require careful moral navigation. Let's examine how Catholic, Islamic, and Jewish legal traditions address three critical bioethical controversies: suicide, abortion, and euthanasia.
1. Suicide and Euthanasia (End-of-Life Ethics)
- Catholic Church (Christianity): Official Catholic doctrine firmly opposes suicide and active euthanasia as "intrinsic evils" (Intrinsice malum) that violate God's ownership over life. However, moral theology makes a crucial distinction between active euthanasia (deliberate killing, which is forbidden) and refusing disproportionate, burdensome medical treatments. The Church actively encourages palliative care to alleviate pain and allows patients to forgo extraordinary, futile medical interventions, permitting natural death to take its course.
- Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh): As detailed in Prophetic Hadith, suicide and active euthanasia (mercy killing) are strictly forbidden (Haram), as Allah alone decrees the hour of death. However, mainstream Islamic medical ethicists and jurists (including the Islamic Fiqh Academy) distinguish between active killing and passive withdrawal of artificial life support. When a patient is medically certified as brain-dead and clinical recovery is impossible, withdrawing mechanical life support is halal, allowing the soul to depart naturally according to divine decree without imposing futile suffering.
- Jewish Law (Halakhah): Judaism strictly forbids suicide and active euthanasia, regarding both as murder. There are no exceptions based on patient consent or terminal diagnosis. However, Jewish law explicitly teaches that doctors have no duty to artificially prolong the dying agonies of a terminal patient in severe, intractable pain. When death is imminent, removing impediments to natural departure is legally permitted under rabbinic consultation.
2. Abortion (Beginning-of-Life Ethics)
- Catholic Church: Affirms the protection of human life from the exact moment of conception until natural death. Direct abortion is deemed gravely immoral. Medical interventions to save the mother's life (such as treating an ectopic pregnancy or uterine cancer) are permitted under the Principle of Double Effect, even if they result in the unintended loss of the fetus.
- Islamic Jurisprudence: Islamic scholarship offers nuanced legal guidance across classical schools (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, Hanbali). There is unanimous consensus across all schools that if continuing a pregnancy poses a definite medical threat to the mother's life, abortion is mandated and permitted at any stage, because the established life of the mother takes legal precedence over the developing fetus. Regarding non-life-threatening situations, classical jurists distinguish between the period before ensoulment (`120 days` or 4 lunar months according to the Hadith of Ibn Mas'ud) and after ensoulment. Before 120 days, many jurists permit termination for severe medical anomalies, genetic disorders, or extreme hardship; after 120 days, abortion is strictly prohibited unless the mother's life is in direct peril.
- Jewish Law: Judaism does not permit abortion on demand for convenience, but it does not view the unborn fetus as possessing full, independent personhood until birth (Yasa rosho - emergence of the head). If a pregnancy threatens the life or severe physical/mental health of the mother, abortion is not merely permitted—it is religiously required under the law of self-defence (Rodef - the fetus being viewed legally as a pursuer endangering the mother). Every case requires individual consultation with a competent rabbi and physician.
6. Societal Devastation: The Anatomy of Murder and War Crimes
To understand why religious traditions place such formidable boundaries around human life, we must analyze the devastating societal breakdown caused by unlawful violence. When murder, self-destruction, or war crimes occur, the damage extends far beyond the immediate victim, sending shockwaves through the entire social fabric.
▪ How Violent Crimes Destroy Society:
1. Erosion of Public Safety: High rates of violent crime generate paralyzing public anxiety. When people feel unsafe in their neighborhoods or places of worship, community life collapses into defensive isolation.
2. Disruption of Social Order: Crime counteracts the established rules of civilization, turning communal order into chaos. Violent factions historically use intimidation and disorder to usurp societal control.
3. Destruction of Trust and Collaboration: When public safety fails, interpersonal trust evaporates. Communities cannot collaborate, innovate, or flourish when neighbors view each other with mutual suspicion.
4. Immense Economic & Generational Burden: Violent crime drains civic budgets, destroys tourism and local commerce, and inflicts generational psychological trauma, requiring massive resources for security and grief rehabilitation.
War Crimes Under International Humanitarian Law
Nowhere is the sanctity of life more vulnerable than during armed conflicts and wars. To curb the atrocities of warfare, international law established stringent legal regimes—most notably the Geneva Conventions (and their Additional Protocols) and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).
Under Article 147 of the Fourth Geneva Convention and Article 7 of the Rome Statute ("Crimes Against Humanity"), the following acts committed against civilians or protected persons are classified as grave war crimes:
- Wilful murder, torture, or inhuman biological treatment of non-combatants or prisoners of war.
- Unlawful confinement, deportation, or enslavement of civilian populations in occupied territories.
- Summary execution or killing of hostages without due judicial process.
- Wanton destruction of private and public property, and the unnecessary ravaging of cities, towns, or villages.
International humanitarian law and comparative religious military ethics operate upon three non-negotiable legal pillars designed to protect human life:
Parties to an armed conflict must at all times strictly distinguish between active combatants and innocent civilian populations. Military operations and targeting can only be directed against legitimate military objectives; directing lethal attacks against civilians, schools, hospitals, or places of worship is an absolute war crime.
Proportionality: Prohibits any attack aimed at a military target if the expected civilian casualties or incidental loss of life would be excessive in relation to the anticipated military advantage.
Precaution: Mandates that armed forces must constantly take active, verifiable precautions to minimize harm to innocent lives during military engagements.
7. Protecting Vulnerable Minorities & Civilians During Armed Conflicts
Every nation on earth is enriched by the presence of national, ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities. However, during times of social upheaval and armed conflict, minority communities—alongside women, children, and the elderly—frequently face multiple forms of discrimination, marginalization, and targeted violence. The fundamental pillars of international human rights law are the principles of non-discrimination and equality, guaranteeing that all human rights apply universally without distinction of race, colour, religion, or ethnic origin.
Let's examine the historical Islamic stance on protecting vulnerable minorities and non-combatants during war. Long before modern Geneva Conventions were drafted, classical Islamic law established revolutionary rules of engagement protecting civilian life and environmental sanctity. When sending Muslim armies into battle, the first Caliph, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (RA), issued his famous Ten Commandments of Military Conduct, summarizing Prophetic teachings:
1. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path.
2. Do not mutilate dead bodies.
3. Do not kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged or infirm old man.
4. Do not cut down or burn palm trees or fruit-bearing trees.
5. Do not slaughter a sheep, a cow, or a camel except for food.
6. You will pass by people who have devoted themselves to monastic life in secluded monasteries (Hermits and Monks); leave them alone to practice their worship in peace.
7. Do not destroy inhabited places or villages.
8. Do not harm emissaries or ambassadors.
9. Honour treaties and covenants with non-Muslim citizens (Ahl al-Dhimmah and Mu'ahad).
10. Act with justice and restraint at all times.
Classical Islamic jurisprudence explicitly guarantees the safety, property, and religious freedom of non-Muslim citizens living within Islamic societies. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ issued a solemn warning regarding the protection of covenanted citizens: "Whoever kills a Mu'ahad (a non-Muslim citizen residing under protection) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise, even though its fragrance can be detected from a distance of forty years' journey" (Sahih al-Bukhari No. 3166).
8. Confronting Extremism: Psychological Care & Interfaith Peacemaking
In our contemporary post-September 11 world, the global community is deeply seized with the threats of religious extremism and terrorism—particularly involving tensions between Abrahamic communities. We must confront this reality with complete honesty while avoiding the common media trap of oversimplifying religion as an inherent engine of war.
Let's define the terms clearly:
- Violent Extremism: Individuals or groups who hold rigid, intolerant viewpoints taken to the absolute limit, rejecting the existence or rights of those holding alternate beliefs, and resorting to violence to enforce their ideology.
- Terrorism: The unlawful use of deliberate violence and terror against innocent civilian populations to incite psychological panic, destabilize governance, and achieve socio-political objectives.
Violent extremists exploit social grievances, inequality, and bad governance to fracture the social contract, targeting vulnerable religious minorities, women, and youth through kidnapping, slavery, and terror. How do world religions counteract this toxic phenomenon?
Religion is inherently divisive and serves as the primary cause of modern geopolitical wars and violence.
While politically motivated extremists manipulate religious terminology for power, authentic religious teachings overwhelmingly mandate peace, justice, and the sanctity of life. When mobilized correctly through ethical leadership, religion is the world's most potent force for conflict resolution, reconciliation, and humanitarian relief.
The Power of Interfaith Dialogue & Peacemaking
No single nation, international organization, or religious body can defeat violent extremism alone. Confronting this challenge requires a united front anchored in ethical solidarity and interfaith cooperation. All divine religions share a common ethical foundation: the duty of good neighbourliness and the universal Golden Rule—to love and treat your neighbour as yourself—taught across Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
Interfaith dialogue is not a superficial diplomatic exercise; it is an essential methodology of peace building that:
- Dismantles harmful stereotypes and corrects theological misinterpretations between civilizations.
- Empowers moderate, reformist religious leaders to challenge political extremists and provide authentic spiritual education to youth.
- Serves as a vital mediation link during active conflicts, facilitating ceasefire negotiations and humanitarian access where secular diplomats cannot reach.
- Defuses simmering community tensions before they erupt into violent conflict, building enduring bridges of mutual respect and social cohesion.
9. Comparative Summary: Sanctity of Life Across Traditions
To provide a clear, comparative overview of how major world traditions conceptualize and protect human life without relying on tabular formatting, we have synthesized their core theological, legal, and bioethical tenets below using structured text analysis:
Foundational Concept: Life is a divine trust (Amanah) emanating from Al-Hayy (The Ever-Living). Surah Al-Ma'idah (5:32) equates saving one innocent life to saving all humanity, and Surah Al-Isra (17:70) honors every child of Adam.
Bioethical Stance: Suicide and active euthanasia (mercy killing) are strictly forbidden (Haram). However, passive withdrawal of futile artificial life support is permitted when brain death is medically certified. Abortion is strictly mandated if the mother's life is in danger; before 120 days (ensoulment), certain schools permit termination for severe medical anomalies.
Peacemaking & Minority Rights: Classical jurisprudence guarantees strict protection and religious freedom for non-Muslim citizens (Mu'ahad). Abu Bakr's Ten Commandments of War strictly forbid harming civilians, monks, women, children, elderly, or even destroying fruit-bearing trees.
Foundational Concept: Human life is the sacred property of God, fashioned in the divine image (Imago Dei). The master principle of Pikuach Nefesh dictates that preserving a human life overrides almost every commandment in the Torah, including Sabbath laws.
Bioethical Stance: Suicide and active euthanasia are condemned as murder. However, doctors have no duty to artificially prolong the dying agonies of a terminal patient when death is imminent. Abortion is not permitted on demand, but is strictly required if the pregnancy endangers the mother's life (Rodef principle).
Peacemaking & Minority Rights: Old Testament law commands strict justice, equity, and provision for widows, orphans, the poor, and strangers residing within the community, forbidding the unlawful shedding of blood.
Foundational Concept: Every individual is made in the image and likeness of God. The New Testament proclaims universal human equality in Christ (Galatians 3:28) and mandates the Golden Rule: loving one's neighbour as oneself.
Bioethical Stance: Official Catholic doctrine opposes suicide and active euthanasia as intrinsic evils. Palliative care is strongly encouraged, and patients may refuse extraordinary, burdensome treatments. Abortion is opposed at all stages, though interventions to save the mother's life are permitted under the Principle of Double Effect.
Peacemaking & Minority Rights: Strong scriptural warrants for peacemaking, defending the oppressed, and serving humanitarian needs. Religious institutions historically serve as vital mediators and reconcilers during international conflicts.
Foundational Concept: In Vedic cosmology (Yajurveda 2.8 / Atharvaveda 12.1-15), all living creatures are sacred, interconnected manifestations of the divine spirit. Buddhism and Jainism elevate the First Commandment: "Do not destroy life," practicing deep moral self-restraint (Ahimsa).
Bioethical Stance: Suicide and the intentional destruction of any living organism are strictly opposed. High spiritual reverence is placed upon the dying process, maintaining mindfulness, inner peace, and compassion without deliberate killing.
Peacemaking & Minority Rights: Universal brotherhood and non-injury; viewing the earth as a shared sanctuary where all five races of humanity and animal species possess equal right to existence without tyrannical human dominion.
10. References & Classical Bibliography
This academic treatise synthesizes foundational scriptures, international legal treaties, and peer-reviewed comparative religious literature. Primary sources referenced include:
- The Holy Qur'an: Surah Al-Baqarah (2:30-33); Surah Ali 'Imran (3:145, 3:185); Surah Al-Ma'idah (5:32); Surah An-Nahl (16:61); Surah Al-Isra (17:33, 17:70); Surah Al-Mu'minun (23:14); Surah Az-Zumar (39:42).
- Sahih al-Bukhari: Hadith narrations on the severity of suicide and false swearing (Vol. 2, Book 23, No. 445, 446); protection of non-Muslim citizens under covenant (Mu'ahad, No. 3166). Damascus: Dar Ibn Kathir, 2002.
- The Holy Bible (Old & New Testaments): Genesis creation narrative (Imago Dei); New Testament teachings on universal brotherhood in Christ (Galatians 3:28); Old Testament protections for widows, orphans, and strangers.
- Talmud & Jewish Halakhah: Principles of Pikuach Nefesh (saving a life overriding Sabbath observance) and end-of-life bioethics.
- Vedic Scriptures (Hinduism): Yajurveda (2.8 - divine unity and omnipresence); Atharvaveda (12.1-15 - earth as shared sanctuary for all creatures and races).
- International Humanitarian Law: The Fourth Geneva Convention (Article 147 - definition of grave war crimes); The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Article 7 - Crimes Against Humanity); ICRC principles of Distinction, Proportionality, and Precaution.
- Academic Literature & Bioethics:
- Mustafayev, Elmar (2014). "The Role of Religions in Conflicts." Geopolitica.info (Archivio Italia ed Europa).
- Gushee, David P. (2020). "The Sanctity of Life: A Working Definition and Comparative Framework." Journal of Bioethical Inquiry.
- Keown, John (2002). "Euthanasia, Ethics and Public Policy: An Argument Against Legalisation." Cambridge University Press.
- Smock, David R. (2006). "Religious Contributions to Peacemaking: When Religion Brings Peace, Not War." United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
- Iyanda, Sunday Elijah (2020). "The Doctrine of Sanctity of Human Life in Judaism and Christianity." Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies (IJOURELS), Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 17-30.
- Patel, Dipti. "The Religious Foundations of Human Rights: A Perspective from the Judeo-Christian Tradition and Hinduism." Human Rights Law Centre.
- International Islamic Fiqh Academy (IFA). Resolutions on End-of-Life Care, Brain Death, and Euthanasia in Islamic Bioethics.
peer reviewed article...
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ReplyDeleteNice article
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ReplyDeleteThe writer has tried to find the bridge between the religions.
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